The+Middle+East



This is the Middle East because it is the region that is in the middle of three different continents: Africa, Europe, and Asia.



Outlne notes 661-666. Main Idea: Egyptian nationalist movements were already in place before the British presence, but after British conquest, the revolts only got more intense. Details: - Egyptian protests occurred before the British occupied the area in 1882. - Lord Cromer was in control of the government after the British conquest. He pushed for economic reforms that would help relief some of the pressures of the debt, but it wasn't completely eliminated. - Cromer also tried to reform that bureaucracy and the construction of irrigation systems/ public works. - British used this success for their own pleasures. - The ayans benefitted the most from the reconstruction of the new irrigation systems, railways, and Egyptian agriculture. - The ayan's wealth brought great divided between the classes. - The new middle class was mainly composed of the sons of **effendi** (the prosperous business and professional families). - Journalists led the revolution. - Arabic newspapers exposed the faults in the British government system. - In the 1890s the first national congress party emerged. Several others sprung up creating fierce rivalries. - The **Dinshawai incident** occurred in 1906 between British soldiers and Egyptian villagers. It occurred because of a hunting accident along the Nile River where the wife of a prayer leader was accidenty shot by army officers. - There was a large possibility for the creation of a mass base for anti-British agitation. Main Idea: The British tried to resolve the issues in Egypt, but made empty promises that angered many. Details: - Ataturk emerged for the Turkish officer corps during World War I. He was able to drive the Greek armies out of Turkey and colonizing the Turkish homeland. - 1923, the Turkish republic was established. - Ataturk attempted a series of reforms, one of those being to westernize, such as the Latin alphabet, women's suffrage, and criticism of the veil. - The French and British forces occupied most of the Middle East in the years after WWI. - The sherif of Mecca, **Hussien**, tried to gain support for the British war against the Turks. - Lots of resistance coming from the **mandates** the carved out in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon. - The British had appeared to promise Palestine, for which they received a League of Nations mandate in 1922, to both the Jewish **Zionists** and the Arabs during the war greatly complicated an already confused situation. - The **Balfour Declaration** was Lord Balfour's promise of support for the establishment of Jewish settlements in Palestine issued in 1917. - This led to the creation of several organizations. - Violent assaults (//pogroms//) on the Jewish communities of Russia and Romania in the 1860s and 1870s, convinced Jewish intellectuals such as **Leon Pinsker** that assimilation of the Jews into, or even acceptance by, Christian European nations was impossilbe. - **Theodor Herzl** was an establish Austrian journalist. - French mobs shouted "Death to the Jews" to army officer **Alfred Dreyfus**. - A bunch of Jewish leaders formed the **World Zionist Organization**. Main Idea: The British could no longer keep the Egyptians happy and a revolt was taken place. Details: - Defense of the Suez Canal was one of the top priorities of the British. - Widespread discontent among peasants due to confiscations of their animals, forced labor, and food shortages. - Many Egyptian leaders resigned from the government when they were denied access to travel to France. - **Wafd party** emerged, led by **Sa'd Zaghlul**. - years of bargaining followed all the nationalist movements. - Egyptian leaders, despite gaining power, did little to help relieve the grievances of the lower classes. - 98 percent of peasants were illiterate, malnutrition was chronic among both the urban and rural population, and an estimated 95 percent of rural Egyptians suffered from eye diseases. Main Idea: Push for liberation in Africa intensified. Details: - Before WWI, most of Africa had came under control of the British. - There were small groups of African western-educate men by the end of the 19th century. - They were mostly loyal to the British and French overlords. - African merchants suffered from shipping shortages and the sudden decline in demand for crops, such as cocoa. - The empty promises the British made angered many Africans. - Major strikes and riots broke out frequently after the war. - The protests in Africa intensified in the 1930s. - Famous nationalist leaders were African American political figures, such as **Marcus Garvey** and **W.E.B. Du Bois**. - There were great attempts to build pan-African organizations. - The negritude literary movement nurtured by these exiles did much to combat the racial stereotyping that had so long held the Africans in psychological bondage to the Europeans, such as poet **Leopold Sedar Senghor**. and 727-729 Main Idea: There was a great debate between the Arabs and Zionists who each wanted to claim the Palestinian region. Details: - Iraq and Syria had gained independence in between the world wars. - It wasn't until the 1970s that the governments were able to rid themselves of Western dominance. - Most of the Arabs were liberated by the 1960s. - The killing of Jews also won international sympathy for the Zionist cause. - There was a major Muslim revolt that swept Palestine between 1936 and 1939. - Jewish immigration to Palestine rose immensely. - **Haganah** was the Zionist military force engaged in violent resistance to British presence in Palestine in the 1940s. - Zionists were determined to get a Jewish state out of the Palestinian region. - Arabs wanted to turn it into a multi-religious nation. - The United Nations approved the partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish countries. - Israel opposed this partition. - War broke out. 798 - 801 Main Idea: Eygptian revolutionary forces were able to topple the khedival regimes, but they were only successful for a short amount of time due to the increase in population and the lack of funding. Details: - Even military forces where divided due to religious differences. - Military personnel also have some type of technical training. - Military officers that were in control usually banned civilian political parties and imposed military regimes of varying degrees or repression and authoritarian control. - Some military regimes destroyed civil liberities and made no attempt to reform social order. - Military government regimes were often corrupted. - **Gamal Abdul Nasser** was a radical when it came to economic and social reform who took power in Egypt in 1952. - Revolutionary reforms emerged in Eygptian societies when leaders did little other than consume the wealth of the country. - The **Free Officers movement** succeeded in gaining power that emerged from a secret organization established in the Egyptian army in the 1930s. - They studied the conditions of the country and prepared to take power in the name of a genuine revolution. - The Revolutionary Command Council was allied to the **Muslim Brotherhood**, who also wanted revolutions. - The Brotherhood was founded by Hasan al-Banna in 1928.He highly disliked the wealthy Egyptians and Europeans. - The main focus of the Brotherhood was to uplift social conditions through reforms. - After the assassination of al-Banna, the Brotherhood continued to expand its influence in the early 1950s among both middle-class youths and the impoverished masses. - The khedive Farouk was toppled from his jewel-encrusted throne and toppled by a military coup.This was the start of the revolution. - Egyptians ruled themselves for the first time since 6 B.C.E. - Nasser and his officers used dictatorial powers to enforce reforms. - Limits were now placed on how much land a person could own and any extra land they had was taken away and given to the peasants. - College level education became available to the Eygptians. - 30% of Egyptians worked for the state. - Strict investments were imposed on foreign investment. - Nasser wanted to destroy the new Israeli state, forge Arabs to unite, and start a socialist revolution in surround lands. - He was able to get the British and French out of the Suez Canal in 1956. - A lot of the state development schemes did not work due to the lack of funding. - Due to the dam blocking the Nile, the number of parasites increased, making many blind. - Six-Day War with Israel in 1967. - Nasser's successor, **Anwar Sadat**, had no choice but to dismantle the massive state apparatus that was created. - Sadat expelled Russians and opened Egypt up to aid and investment from the US and western Europe. - Sadat's successor, **Hosni Mubarak**, continue what Sadat had left off. and 802-804 **Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West** Main Idea: All the revolutions that occurred in Iran wanted to turn back to their old Islamic traditions and removed Western influences. Details: - Many challenges were started under the direction of **Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini**. - Motivation by supporters was based of the ideals of religious purity and the combination of religion with politics. - The goal was to topple the Western-backed governments. - Mahdi and Khomeini both promosed to rescue the Islamic faithful from imperialist Westerners and from corrupt and heretical leaders with the Muslim world. - Each revivalist movement aimed to restore the institutions of Islamic civilizations. - However, Khomeini was able to gain power. - Since Iran had never been colonized before, the impetus for "modernization" came qucikly and gained a lot of support. - The second shah tried to get Iran out of isolation through its oil. - He fled the nation when the nationalist leader, Mohammed Mosaddeq rose to power. However, the shah regained power in 1953. - The shah regimes angered the Middle classes. - Mosaddeq angered //ayatollahs//, religious experts and the //mullahs//, local prayer leaders, due to his neglect of Islamic worship and religious institutions. - The shah only treated his officers well, no one else. - The "satanic" influences of the United States and western Europe were purged when Khomeini came to power. - Restoration of old traditions. - Saddam Hussien wanted to take advantage of the turmoil in Iran by annexing its western, oil-rich provinces. - Khomeini was determined to destroy Hussien. - War between Iran and Iraqis, thousands of little boys died for their country.
 * Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East **
 * War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East **
 * Revolt in Egypt, 1919 **
 * The Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa **
 * Conflicting Nationalisms: Arabs, Israelis, and the Palestinian Question **
 * Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions **

__Leadership Analysis on Nasser__ - [[file:Leader Analysis Sheet on Nasser.doc]]
revised leadership analysis -

__Leadership Analysis on Khomeini__ - [[file:Leader Analysis Sheet on Khomeini.docx]]
revised leadership analysis -